M3 - Lesson 7 - The e-Learning

M3 - Lesson 6 - The OHP and the Liquid Crystal Display

M3 - Lesson 5 - Three Dimensional Instructional Materials

M3 - Lesson 4 - Chalkboard and Other Display Materials

M3 - Lesson 3 - Audio Media

M3 - Lesson 2 - Visual Symbols

M3 - Lesson 1 - Pictorial Media

Module III - Technologies for Teaching and Learning

Learning Activities

check links sa fb group. thank you

Sample Activities for Learning in a Digital Age

sample activities for educational technology and they are vital too in the learning process:

  > digital video
  > claymation
  > digital story telling
  > pod casting

https://coe.winthrop.edu/educ275/00_New_FALL_05/sample_digital_learning.pdf

The Educational Technology is Technology Education Manifesto by Stephen Petrina

if you want to have the clear vision of what is TE and ET... I suggest to read this article. Very comprehensive and scholarly done by the author.

http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/v15n1/pdf/petrina.pdf

Schedule of Classes

April 16  - Module 1
April 30 - Module 2
May 14  - Midterm Exam (Online)
                  Makey Makey Discussion
May 28 - Module 3
June 11 - Preparation Day
               - Demo/Presentation (Group)
                  Makey Makey or other technology
                  Submission of propoposal: on or or before May 28

              - Seminar cum Workshop (Arduino)
                 Committee Assignment
                      - communication
                      - program/invitation
                      - token/certificate
                      - hall prep/decoration
                     - registration
                     - others
June 25 - Demo/Presentation
July 2 - Seminar cum Workshop (Arduino)

Parts of Proposal
   - Executive Summary
   - Methodology
   - Discussion/Presentation of Topic

Due of Learning Activities - on or before June 25

Grading System

5%   Attendance
10% Learning Activities
10% Classroom Participation
15% Demo/Presentation
30% Midterm Exam
30% Final Exam (arduino)
100 % TOTAL

Hard Copy

Hard copies are uploaded in this group:
https://www.facebook.com/groups/346164028841239/

p.s join the group as well and should you have questions/queries, channel it here.

Thank you and see you

17 Symbol Systems

Symbol Systems (Gavriel Salomon) 

The symbol systems theory developed by Salomon is intended to explain the effects of media on learning. Salomon (1977) states: "To summarize, the symbol systems of media affect the acquisition of knowledge in a number of ways. First, they highlight different aspects of content. Second, they vary with respect to ease of recoding. Third, specific coding elements can save the learner from difficult mental elaborations by overtly supplanting or short-circuiting specific elaboration. Fourth, symbol systems differ with respect to how much processing they demand or allow. Fifth, symbol systems differ with respect to the kinds of mental processes they call on for recoding and elaboration. Thus, symbol systems partly determine who will acquire how much knowledge from what kinds of messages." (p226-227)

According to Salomon, each medium is capable of conveying content via certain inherent symbol systems. For example, Salomon suggests that television requires less mental processing than reading and that the meanings secured from viewing television tend to be less elaborate than those secured from reading (i.e., different levels of processing are involved). However, the meaning extracted from a given medium depends upon the learner. Thus, a person may acquire information about a subject they are familar with equally well from different media but be significantly influenced by different media for novel information.

Salomon (1981) focuses on the reciprocal nature of instructional communications, the instructional setting, and the learner. Salomon argues that schema play a major role in determining how messages are perceived -- in terms of creating an anticipatory bias that influences what information is selected and how it is interpreted. Furthermore, media create new schema which affect subsequent cognitive processing.

Symbol systems theory is closely related to aptitude-treatment interaction research and Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.

Application 

Salomon's theory is supported primarily by research conducted with film and television (especially " Sesame Street "). More recent work has extended the framework to computers (e.g., Salomon, Perkins & Globerson, 1991).

Example 

One of the critical concepts of Salomon's theory is that the effectiveness of a medium depends upon its match with the learner, the context and the task. Salomon (1977; p 112) explains: "Learning can be facilitated to the extent that the activated skills are relevant to the demands of the learning task. Thus, when the task calls for some act of analytic comparison and the coded message activates imagery instead, the learning may be debilitated. For effective instructional communication, a match needs to be established between the cognitive demands of a learning task, the skills that are required by the codes of the message, and the learner's level of mastery of these skills."

Principles 

1. The symbolic coding elements of particular media require different mental transformations and hence affect the mastery of specific skills.

2. The level of knowledge and skill that an individual possesses will affect the impact of specific media sequences.

3. The nature of the learning/information processing tasks can affect the impact of specific media sequences.

4. The social context of media presentations can influence what message is perceived.

5. There is a reciprocal relationship between media and learner; each can influence the other.

References 

• Salomon, G. (1979). Interaction of Media, Cognition, and Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Salomon, G. (1981). Communication and Education. Beverly Hills , CA < : Sage.
• Salomon, G., Perkins, D., & Globerson, T. (1991). Partners in cognition: Extending human intelligence with intelligent technologies. Educational Researcher, 20(4), 2-9.

16 Distributed Cognition

Distributed Cognition 

In Distributed Cognition the student is afforded more power. In other words it is a student centered approach to learning where the learners participate in a systematically designed learning environment that supports interaction amongst its participants. Distributed cognition describes a construction of knowledge that takes place in a natural environment which is synergistically connected to the cognitive actions taken by the participants in the learning environment. (Bell & Winn, 2000) This theory promotes learning in a community of learners or a system where interaction takes place. It is through this interaction where cognition occurs. Distributed Cognition requires sharing of cognitive activity among the parts and participants of this system, which can be other people or artifacts such as devices, technologies or media. These participants distribute their cognition among other learners and physical or digital artifacts by externally representing their knowledge. Artifacts can help to scaffold new capabilities as well as off-load a certain amount of cognitive work thus reducing the cognitive load of the learners and helping to augment their capabilities. At times, by using these artifacts, a little bit of the information might stick with the user, this is known as cognitive residue. It is through interaction with other members and artifacts that progresses learning. Therefore communication among all participants is paramount in importance (Bell & Winn, 2000).

The role of technology within this theory is an invaluable part of the system in which the learners are interacting. This interaction can either help to distribute their knowledge, off-load certain amounts of cognitive work making the cognitive load less and or help to scaffold new capabilities (Bell & Winn, 2000). In this theory technology (artifacts and or tools) can be used to help extend human capabilities. An example of this might be the use of manipulatives in the early development of basic addition skills (Bell & Winn, 2000). The problem might be too complex for the child to solve, but with the use if the manipulative, they can visually represent their thinking and use the tool to help them solve the problem. Another example of this is taken from a case study that was conducted using robotics to produce solving problem skills. In this case study, students were placed into small collaborative groups and were asked to construct a robot, using Lego Mindstorm for schools kits, which would perform various tasks. The groups were introduced to a tool known as a flowchart. They used these flowcharts to map the programming instructions they would give the robot to complete the given task. This allowed them to off-load some of the cognitive work to the flowchart and then through its use, they were able to solve harder problems (Chambers, et al, 2007). The above example shows that cognition takes place because of the cognitive abilities of the learner plus the augmentation of these capabilities by the use of the external technology (Bell & Winn, 2000).

This learning theory supports the very skills needed by the 21st century. Learners who are placed in to a learning environment based on this theory would be using their “knowledge and skills—by thinking critically, applying knowledge to new situations, analyzing information, comprehending new ideas, communicating, collaborating, solving problems, making decisions” (Honey, et al, 2003, p. 9).

15 Social Constructivism

Social Constructivism (Lev Vygotsky) 

The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals."

A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior. Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.

Vygotsky's theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of socialization. For example, in the learning of language, our first utterances with peers or adults are for the purpose of communication but once mastered they become internalized and allow "inner speech".

Vygotsky's theory is complementary to Bandura's work on social learning and a key component of situated learning theory as well. Because Vygotsky's focus was on cognitive development, it is interesting to compare his views with those a constructivist (Bruner) and a genetic epistemologist (Piaget).

Application 

This is a general theory of cognitive development. Most of the original work was done in the context of language learning in children (Vygotsky, 1962), although later applications of the framework have been broader.

Example 

Vygotsky (1978, p56) provides the example of pointing a finger. Initially, this behavior begins as a meaningless grasping motion; however, as people react to the gesture, it becomes a movement that has meaning. In particular, the pointing gesture represents an interpersonal connection between individuals.

Principles 

1. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age.

2. Full cognitive development requires social interaction.

References 

• Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives. Cambridge University Press.

14 Situated Cognition Theory

Situated Cognition Theory (J. Lave) 

Lave argues that learning as it normally occurs is a function of the activity, context and culture in which it occurs (i.e., it is situated). This contrasts with most classroom learning activities which involve knowledge which is abstract and out of context. Social interaction is a critical component of situated learning -- learners become involved in a "community of practice" which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired. As the beginner or newcomer moves from the periphery of this community to its center, they become more active and engaged within the culture and hence assume the role of expert or old-timer. Furthermore, situated learning is usually unintentional rather than deliberate. These ideas are what Lave & Wenger (1991) call the process of "legitimate peripheral participation." 

Other researchers have further developed the theory of situated learning. Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989) emphasize the idea of cognitive apprenticeship: "Cognitive apprenticeship supports learning in a domain by enabling students to acquire, develop and use cognitive tools in authentic domain activity. Learning, both outside and inside school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social construction of knowledge." Brown et al. also emphasize the need for a new epistemology for learning -- one that emphasizes active perception over concepts and representation. Suchman (1988) explores the situated learning framework in the context of artificial intelligence. 

Situated learning has antecedents in the work of Gibson (theory of affordances) and Vygotsky (social learning). In addition, the theory of Schoenfeld on mathematical problem solving embodies some of the critical elements of situated learning framework. 

Application 

Situated learning is a general theory of knowledge acquisition. It has been applied in the context of technology-based learning activities for schools that focus on problem-solving skills (Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1993). McLellan (1995) provides a collection of articles that describe various perspectives on the theory. 

Example 

Lave & Wenger (1991) provide an analysis of situated learning in five different settings: Yucatec midwives, native tailors, navy quartermasters, meat cutters and alcoholics. In all cases, there was a gradual acquisition of knowledge and skills as novices learned from experts in the context of everyday activities. 

Principles 

1. Knowledge needs to be presented in an authentic context, i.e., settings and applications that would normally involve that knowledge. 

2. Learning requires social interaction and collaboration. 

References 

• Brown, J.S., Collins, A. & Duguid, S. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42. 
• Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt (March 1993). Anchored instruction and situated cognition revisited. Educational Technology, 33(3), 52-70. 
• Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in Practice: Mind, mathematics, and culture in everyday life. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University < Press. 
• Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1990). Situated Learning: Legitimate Periperal Participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 
• McLellan, H. (1995). Situated Learning Perspectives. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. 
• Suchman, L. (1988). Plans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human/Machine Communication. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 

13 Script Theory

Script Theory (Roger Schank) 

The central focus of Schank's theory has been the structure of knowledge, especially in the context of language understanding. Schank (1975) outlined contextual dependency theory which deals with the representation of meaning in sentences. Building upon this framework, Schank & Abelson (1977) introduced the concepts of scripts, plans and themes to handle story-level understanding. Later work (e.g., Schank, 1982,1986) elaborated the theory to encompass other aspects of cognition.

The key element of conceptual dependency theory is the idea that all conceptualizations can be represented in terms of a small number of primative acts performed by an actor on an object. For example, the concept, "John read a book" could be represented as: John MTRANS (information) to LTM from book, where MTRANS is the primitive act of mental transfer. In Schank's theory, all memory is episodic, i.e., organized around personal experiences rather than semantic categories. Generalized episodes are called scripts -- specific memories are stored as pointers to scripts plus any unique events for a particular episode. Scripts allow individuals to make inferences needed for understanding by filling in missing information (i.e., schema).

Schank (1986) uses script theory as the basis for a dynamic model of memory. This model suggests that events are understood in terms of scripts, plans and other knowledge structures as well as relevant previous experiences. An important aspect of dynamic memory are explanatory processes (XPs) that represent stereotyped answers to events that involve anomalies or unusual events. Schank proposes that XPs are a critical mechanism of creativity.

Application 

Script theory is primarily intended to explain language processing and higher thinking skills. A variety of computer programs have been developed to demonstrate the theory. Schank (1991) applies his theoretical framework to storytelling and the development of intelligent tutors. Shank & Cleary (1995) describe the application of these ideas to educational software.

Example 

The classic example of Schank's theory is the restaurant script. The script has the following characteristics:

Scene 1: 

Entering 

S PTRANS S into restaurant, S ATTEND eyes to tables, S MBUILD< where to sit, S PTRANS S to table, S MOVE S to sitting position

Scene 2: 

Ordering 

S PTRANS< menu to S (menu already on table), S MBUILD< choice of food, S MTRANS< signal to waiter, waiter PTRANS to table, S MTRANS< 'I want food' to waiter, waiter PTRANS to cook

Scene 3: 

Eating 

Cook ATRANS food to waiter, waiter PTRANS food to S, S INGEST food

Scene 4: 

Exiting 

waiter MOVE write check, waiter PTRANS to S, waiter ATRANS check to S, S ATRANS money to waiter, S PTRANS out of restaurant

There are many variations possible on this general script having to do with different types of restaurants or procedures. For example, the script above assumes that the waiter takes the money; in some restaurants, the check is paid to a cashier. Such variations are opportunities for misunderstandings or incorrect inferences.

Principles 

1. Conceptualization is defined as an act or doing something to an object in a direction.

2. All conceptualizations can be analyzed in terms of a small number of primitive acts.

3. All memory is episodic and organized in terms of scripts.

4. Scripts allow individuals to make inferences and hence understand verbal/written discourse.

5. Higher level expectations are created by goals and plans.

References 

• Schank, R.C. (1975). Conceptual Information Processing. New York: Elsevier.
• Schank, R.C. (1982a). Dynamic Memory: A Theory of Reminding and Learning in Computers and People. Cambridge University Press.
• Schank, R.C. (1982b). Reading< and Understanding. Hillsdale , NJ: Erlbaum.
• Schank, R.C. (1986). Explanation Patterns: Understanding Mechanically and Creatively. Hillsdale , NJ: Erlbaum.
• Schank, R.C. (1991). Tell Me a Story: A New Look at Real and Artificial Intelligence. New York: Simon & Schuster.
• Schank, R.C. & Abelson, R. (1977). Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding. Hillsdale , NJ: Earlbaum Assoc.
• Schank, R.C. & Cleary. C. (1995). Engines for education. Hillsdale , NJ: Erlbaum Assoc.

12 Multiple Intelligences

Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner) 

The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there are a number of distinct forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees. Gardner proposes seven primary forms: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (e.g., insight, metacognition) and interpersonal (e.g., social skills).

According to Gardner, the implication of the theory is that learning/teaching should focus on the particular intelligences of each person. For example, if an individual has strong spatial or musical intelligences, they should be encouraged to develop these abilities. Gardner points out that the different intelligences represent not only different content domains but also learning modalities. A further implication of the theory is that assessment of abilities should measure all forms of intelligence, not just linguistic and logical-mathematical.

Gardner also emphasizes the cultural context of multiple intelligences. Each culture tends to emphasize particular intelligences. For example, Gardner (1983) discusses the high spatial abilities of the Puluwat people of the Caroline Islands, who use these skills to navigate their canoes in the ocean. Gardner also discusses the balance of personal intelligences required in Japanese society.

The theory of multiple intelligences shares some common ideas with other theories of individual differences such as Cronbach & Snow, Guilford, and Sternberg.

Application 

The theory of multiple intelligences has been focused mostly on child development although it applies to all ages. While there is no direct empirical support for the theory, Gardner (1983) presents evidence from many domains including biology, anthropology, and the creative arts and Gardner (1993a) discusses application of the theory to school programs. Gardner (1982, 1993b) explores the implications of the framework for creativity.

Example 

Gardner (1983, p 390) describes how learning to program a computer might involve multiple intelligences:

"Logical-mathematical intelligence seems central, because programming depends upon the deployment of strict procedures to solve a problem or attain a goal in a finite number of steps. Linguistic intelligence is also relevant, at least as long as manual and computer languages make use of ordinary language...an individual with a strong musical bent might best be introduced to programming by attempting to program a simple musical piece (or to master a program that composes). An individual with strong spatial abilities might be initiated through some form of computer graphics -- and might be aided in the task of programming through the use of a flowchart or some other spatial diagram. Personal intelligences can play important roles. The extensive planning of steps and goals carried out by the individual engaged in programming relies on intrapersonal forms of thinking, even as the cooperation needed for carrying a complex task or for learning new computational skills may rely on an individual's ability to work with a team. Kinesthetic intelligence may play a role in working with the computer itself, by facilitating skill at the terminal..."

Principles 

1. Individuals should be encouraged to use their preferred intelligences in learning.

2. Instructional activities should appeal to different forms of intelligence.

3. Assessment of learning should measure multiple forms of intelligence.

References 

• Gardner, H. (1982). Art, Mind and Brain. New York: Basic Books.
• Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Books.
• Gardner, H. (1993a). Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. NY: Basic Books.
• Gardner, H. (1 993b). Creating Minds. NY: Basic Books.
• Marks-Tarlow, T. (1995). Creativity inside out: Learning through multiple intelligences. Reading , MA: Addison-Wesley.

11 Experiential Learning

Experiential Learning (Carl Rogers) 

Rogers distinguished two types of learning: cognitive (meaningless) and experiential (significant). The former corresponds to academic knowledge such as learning vocabulary or multiplication tables and the latter refers to applied knowledge such as learning about engines in order to repair a car. The key to the distinction is that experiential learning addresses the needs and wants of the learner. Rogers lists these qualities of experiential learning: personal involvement, self-initiated, evaluated by learner, and pervasive effects on learner.

To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to personal change and growth. Rogers feels that all human beings have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning. This includes: (1) setting a positive climate for learning, (2) clarifying the purposes of the learner(s), (3) organizing and making available learning resources, (4) balancing intellectual and emotional components of learning, and (5) sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating.

According to Rogers, learning is facilitated when: (1) the student participates completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and direction, (2) it is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, personal or research problems, and (3) self-evaluation is the principal method of assessing progress or success. Rogers< also emphasizes the importance of learning to learn and an openness to change.

Roger's theory of learning evolved as part of the humanistic education movement (e.g., Patterson, 1973; Valett, 1977).

Application 

Roger's theory of learning originates from his views about psychotherapy and humanistic approach to psychology. It applies primarily to adult learners and has influenced other theories of adult learning such as Knowles and Cross. Combs (1982) examines the significance of Roger's work to education. Rogers & Frieberg (1994) discuss applications of the experiential learning framework to the classroom.

Example 

A person interested in becoming rich might seek out books or classes on ecomomics, investment, great financiers, banking, etc. Such an individual would perceive (and learn) any information provided on this subject in a much different fashion than a person who is assigned a reading or class.

Principles 

1. Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is relevant to the personal interests of the student

2. Learning which is threatening to the self (e.g., new attitudes or perspectives) are more easily assimilated when external threats are at a minimum

3. Learning proceeds faster when the threat to the self is low

4. Self-initiated learning is the most lasting and pervasive.

References 

• Combs, A.W. (1982). Affective education or none at all. Educational Leadership, 39(7), 494-497.
• Patterson, C.H. (1973). Humanistic Education. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Rogers, C.R. (1969). Freedom to Learn. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
• Rogers, C.R. & Freiberg, H.J. (1994). Freedom to Learn (3rd Ed). Columbus, OH: Merrill/Macmillan.
• Valett, R.E. (1977). Humanistic Education. St Louis, MO: Mosby.

10 Elaboration Theory

Elaboration Theory (Charlie Reigeluth)

According to elaboration theory, instruction should be organized in increasing order of complexity for optimal learning. For example, when teaching a procedural task, the simplest version of the task is presented first; subsequent lessons present additional versions until the full range of tasks are taught. In each lesson, the learner should be reminded of all versions taught so far (summary/synthesis). A key idea of elaboration theory is that the learner needs to develop a meaningful context into which subsequent ideas and skills can be assimilated.

Elaboration theory proposes seven major strategy components: (1) an elaborative sequence, (2) learning prerequisite sequences, (3) summary, (4) synthesis, (5) analogies, (6) cognitive strategies, and (7) learner control. The first component is the most critical as far as elaboration theory is concerned. The elaborative sequence is defined as a simple to complex sequence in which the first lesson epitomizes (rather than summarize or abstract) the ideas and skills that follow. Epitomizing should be done on the basis of a single type of content (concepts, procedures, principles), although two or more types may be elaborated simultaneously, and should involve the learning of just a few fundamental or representative ideas or skills at the application level.

It is claimed that the elaboration approach results in the formation of more stable cognitive structures and therefore better retention and transfer, increased learner motivation through the creation of meaningful learning contexts, and the provision of information about the content that allows informed learner control. Elaboration theory is an extension of the work of Ausubel (advance organizers) and Bruner (spiral curriculum).

Application 

Elaboration theory applies to the design of instruction for the cognitive domain. The theoretical framework has been applied to a number of settings in higher education and training (English & Reigeluth, 1996; Reigeluth, 1992). Hoffman (1997) considers the relationship between elaboration theory and hypermedia.

Example 

Reigeluth (1983) provides the following summary of a theoretical epitome for an introductory course in economics:

1. Organizing content (principles)- the law of supply and demand

a) An increase in price causes an incease in the quantity supplied and a decrease in the quantity demanded.

b) A decrease in price causes a decrease in the quantity supplied and an increase in the quantity demanded.

2. Supporting content - concepts of price, supply, demand, increase, decrease

Practically all principles of economics can be viewed as elaborations of the law of suppy and demand including monopoly, regulation, price fixing, planned economies.

Principles 

1. Instruction will be more effective if it follows an elaboration strategy, i.e., the use of epitomes containing motivators, analogies, summaries, and syntheses.

2. There are four types of relationships important in the design of instruction: conceptual, procedural, theoretical and learning pre-requisites.

References 

• English, R.E. & Reigeluth, C.M. (1996). Formative research on sequencing instruction with the elaboration theory. Educational Technology Research & Development, 44(1), 23-42.
• Hoffman, S. (1997). Elaboration theory and hypermedia: Is there a link? Educational Technology, 37(1), 57-64.
• Reigeluth, C. & Stein, F. (1983). The elaboration theory of instruction. In C. Reigeluth (ed.), Instructional Design Theories and Models. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
• Reigeluth, C. (1987). Lesson blueprints based upon the elaboration theory of instruction. In C. Reigeluth (ed.), Instructional Design Theories in Action. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
• Reigeluth, C. (1992). Elaborating the elaboration theory. Educational Technology Research & Development, 40(3), 80-86.

09 Dual-Coding Theory

Dual Coding Theory (Allan Paivio)

The dual coding theory proposed by Paivio attempts to give equal weight to verbal and non-verbal processing. Paivio (1986) states: "Human cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and events. Moreover, the language system is peculiar in that it deals directly with linguistic input and output (in the form of speech or writing) while at the same time serving a symbolic function with respect to nonverbal objects, events, and behaviors. Any representational theory must accommodate this dual functionality." (p 53).

The theory assumes that there are two cognitive subsystems, one specialized for the representation and processing of nonverbal objects/events (i.e., imagery), and the other specialized for dealing with language. Paivio also postulates two different types of representational units: "imagens" for mental images and "logogens" for verbal entities which he describes as being similar to "chunks" as described by Miller. Logogens are organized in terms of associations and hierarchies while imagens are organized in terms of part-whole relationships.

Dual Coding theory identified three types of processing: (1) representational, the direct activation of verbal or non-verbal representations, (2) referential, the activation of the verbal system by the nonverbal system or vice-versa, and (3) associative processing, the activation of representations within the same verbal or nonverbal system. A given task may require any or all of the three kinds of processing.

Application 

Dual coding theory has been applied to many cognitive phenomena including: mnemonics, problem-solving, concept learning and language. Dual coding theory accounts for the significance of spatial abilities in theories of intelligence (e.g., Guilford). Paivio (1986) provides a dual coding explanation of bilingual processing. Clark & Paivio (1991) present dual coding theory as a general framework for educational psychology.

Example 

Many experiments reported by Paivio and others support the importance of imagery in cognitive operations. In one experiment, participants saw pairs of items that differed in roundness (e.g., tomato, goblet) and were asked to indicate which member of the pair was rounder. The objects were presented as words, pictures, or word-picture pairs. The response times were slowest for word-word pairs, intermediate for the picture-word pairs, and fastest for the picture-picture pairs.

Principles 

1. Recall/recognition is enhanced by presenting information in both visual and verbal form.

References:

• Clark, J. M. & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 149-170.
• Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and Verbal Processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
• Paivio, A. (1986). Mental Representations. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Paivio, A. & Begg, I. (1981). The Psychology of Language. New York: Prentice-Hall.

08 Diffusion of Innovations Theory

Diffusion of Innovation Theory

Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) Theory, developed by E.M. Rogers in 1962, is one of the oldest social science theories. It originated in communication to explain how, over time, an idea or product gains momentum and diffuses (or spreads) through a specific population or social system. The end result of this diffusion is that people, as part of a social system, adopt a new idea, behavior, or product. Adoption means that a person does something differently than what they had previously (i.e., purchase or use a new product, acquire and perform a new behavior, etc.). The key to adoption is that the person must perceive the idea, behavior, or product as new or innovative. It is through this that diffusion is possible. 

Adoption of a new idea, behavior, or product (i.e., "innovation") does not happen simultaneously in a social system; rather it is a process whereby some people are more apt to adopt the innovation than others. Researchers have found that people who adopt an innovation early have different characteristics than people who adopt an innovation later. When promoting an innovation to a target population, it is important to understand the characteristics of the target population that will help or hinder adoption of the innovation. There are five established adopter categories, and while the majority of the general population tends to fall in the middle categories, it is still necessary to understand the characteristics of the target population. When promoting an innovation, there are different strategies used to appeal to the different adopter categories. 

1. Innovators - These are people who want to be the first to try the innovation. They are venturesome and interested in new ideas. These people are very willing to take risks, and are often the first to develop new ideas. Very little, if anything, needs to be done to appeal to this population. 
2. Early Adopters - These are people who represent opinion leaders. They enjoy leadership roles, and embrace change opportunities. They are already aware of the need to change and so are very comfortable adopting new ideas. Strategies to appeal to this population include how-to manuals and information sheets on implementation. They do not need information to convince them to change. 
3. Early Majority - These people are rarely leaders, but they do adopt new ideas before the average person. That said, they typically need to see evidence that the innovation works before they are willing to adopt it. Strategies to appeal to this population include success stories and evidence of the innovation's effectiveness. 
4. Late Majority - These people are skeptical of change, and will only adopt an innovation after it has been tried by the majority. Strategies to appeal to this population include information on how many other people have tried the innovation and have adopted it successfully. 
5. Laggards - These people are bound by tradition and very conservative. They are very skeptical of change and are the hardest group to bring on board. Strategies to appeal to this population include statistics, fear appeals, and pressure from people in the other adopter groups.

The stages by which a person adopts an innovation, and whereby diffusion is accomplished, include awareness of the need for an innovation, decision to adopt (or reject) the innovation, initial use of the innovation to test it, and continued use of the innovation. There are five main factors that influence adoption of an innovation, and each of these factors is at play to a different extent in the five adopter categories. 

1. Relative Advantage - The degree to which an innovation is seen as better than the idea, program, or product it replaces. 
2. Compatibility - How consistent the innovation is with the values, experiences, and needs of the potential adopters. 
3. Complexity - How difficult the innovation is to understand and/or use. 
4. Triability - The extent to which the innovation can be tested or experimented with before a commitment to adopt is made. 
5. Observability - The extent to which the innovation provides tangible results. 

Limitations of Diffusion of Innovation Theory

There are several limitations of Diffusion of Innovation Theory, which include the following: 

• Much of the evidence for this theory, including the adopter categories, did not originate in public health and it was not developed to explicitly apply to adoption of new behaviors or health innovations. 
• It does not foster a participatory approach to adoption of a public health program. 
• It works better with adoption of behaviors rather than cessation or prevention of behaviors. 
• It doesn't take into account an individual's resources or social support to adopt the new behavior (or innovation). 

This theory has been used successfully in many fields including communication, agriculture, public health, criminal justice, social work, and marketing. In public health, Diffusion of Innovation Theory is used to accelerate the adoption of important public health programs that typically aim to change the behavior of a social system. For example, an intervention to address a public health problem is developed, and the intervention is promoted to people in a social system with the goal of adoption (based on Diffusion of Innovation Theory). The most successful adoption of a public health program results from understanding the target population and the factors influencing their rate of adoption.

07 Constructivist Theory

Constructivist Theory (Jerome Bruner)

A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given".

As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to discover principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active dialog (i.e., Socratic learning). The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned.

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.

In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990, 1996) has expanded his theoretical framework to encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning as well as the practice of law.

Application 

Bruner's constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of cognition. Much of the theory is linked to child development research (especially Piaget). The ideas outlined in Bruner (1960) originated from a conference focused on science and math learning. Bruner illustrated his theory in the context of mathematics and social science programs for young children (see Bruner, 1973). The original development of the framework for reasoning processes is described in Bruner, Goodnow & Austin (1951). Bruner (1983) focuses on language learning in young children.

Note that Constructivism is a very broad conceptual framework in philosophy and science and Bruner's theory represents one particular perspective. 

Example 

This example is taken from Bruner (1973):

"The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple table, so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed multiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualized."

Principles 

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).

References:

· Bruner, J. (1960). The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

· Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

· Bruner, J. (1973). Going Beyond the Information Given. New York: Norton.

· Bruner, J. (1983). Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language. New York: Norton.

· Bruner, J. (1986). Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

· Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

· Bruner, J. (1996). The Culture of Education, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

· Bruner, J., Goodnow, J., & Austin, A. (1956). A Study of Thinking. New York: Wiley.

06 Cognitive Flexibility Theory

Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro, Feltovitch, & Coulson)

Cognitive flexibility theory focuses on the nature of learning in complex and ill-structured domains. Spiro & Jehng (1990, p. 165) state: "By cognitive flexibility, we mean the ability to spontaneously restructure one's knowledge, in many ways, in adaptive response to radically changing situational demands...This is a function of both the way knowledge is represented (e.g., along multiple rather single conceptual dimensions) and the processes that operate on those mental representations (e.g., processes of schema assembly rather than intact schema retrieval)."

The theory is largely concerned with transfer of knowledge and skills beyond their initial learning situation. For this reason, emphasis is placed upon the presentation of information from multiple perspectives and use of many case studies that present diverse examples. The theory also asserts that effective learning is context-dependent, so instruction needs to be very specific. In addition, the theory stresses the importance of constructed knowledge; learners must be given an opportunity to develop their own representations of information in order to properly learn.

Cognitive flexibility theory builds upon other constructivist theories (e.g., constructivist, subsumption, genetic epistemology) and is related to the work of symbol systems in terms of media and learning interaction.

Application 

Cognitive flexibility theory is especially formulated to support the use of interactive technology (e.g., videodisc, hypertext). Its primary applications have been literary comprehension, history, biology and medicine.

Example 

Jonassen, Ambruso & Olesen (1992) describe an application of cognitive flexibility theory to the design of a hypertext program on transfusion medicine. The program provides a number of different clinical cases which students must diagnose and treat using various sources of information available (including advice from experts). The learning environment presents multiple perspectives on the content, is complex and ill-defined, and emphasizes the construction of knowledge by the learner.

Principles 

1. Learning activities must provide multiple representations of content.

2. Instructional materials should avoid oversimplifying the content domain and support context-dependent knowledge.

3. Instruction should be case-based and emphasize knowledge construction, not transmission of information.

4. Knowledge sources should be highly interconnected rather than compartmentalized.

References:

· Jonassen, D., Ambruso, D . & Olesen, J. (1992). Designing hypertext on transfusion medicine using cognitive flexibility theory. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 1(3), 309-322.

· Spiro, R.J., Coulson, R.L., Feltovich, P.J., & Anderson, D. (1988). Cognitive flexibility theory: Advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. In V. Patel (ed.), Proceedings of the 10th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

· Spiro, R.J., Feltovich, P.J., Jacobson, M.J., & Coulson, R.L. (1992). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism and hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. In T. Duffy & D. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

· Spiro, R.J. & Jehng, J. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext: Theory and technology for the non-linear and multidimensional traversal of complex subject matter. D. Nix & R. Spiro (eds.), Cognition, Education, and Multimedia. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.