04 Theories and Practices

Theories and practices

Three main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks have been present in the educational technology literature. Each of these schools of thought are still present in today’s literature but have evolved as the Psychology literature has evolved.

Behaviorism

In B. F. Skinner’s Behaviorism, the major theories as pertaining to education are reinforcement, verbal behavior theories, and social development theories.  Though all aspects of Behaviorist theory have influenced the world of education, Behaviorist reinforcement theory still impacts education widely today especially when looking at educational technology.  Skinner (1958) has found that “behavior is shown to be shaped and maintained by its ‘reinforcing’ consequences rather than elicited as conditioned or unconditioned response to stimuli”.  This idea has been molded into many educational practices, and the idea of reinforcement has had many implications for educational technology.  

The utilization of Behaviorist theory in education has changed quite a bit though some aspects remain parallel despite the changing times.  Behaviorism has seen the Teaching Machine Phase, the Programmed Instruction Phase, and the Systems Approach to Instruction.  The Teaching Machine is perhaps of the most interest when examining educational technologies of today, as the machines were very basic versions of what educational software and computers can accomplish now.  The teaching machine was, in essence, a box that sat on student desks that each individual student could use to record answers to certain prompted questions.  Skinner (1958) provided background information about the teaching machines and called them “devices which arrange optimal conditions for self-instruction”.  

The concepts behind the Teaching Machine and modern-day computer gaming software, for example, are fundamentally equal.  The Teaching Machine example allows us to draw such interesting conclusions as there are so many linkages to today’s instruction.

Current Trends of Behaviorism in Educational Technology

Sutton (2003) states that there are many aspects of Behaviorism that are positive and that have led to the development of important instructional technologies. 

Examples of Behaviorism in current trends are instructional software and computer-assisted instruction.  

Shield (2000) also discussed the use of drill and practice tutorials, with individual instructions and feedback drill and practice.  This type of learning, where a “student is rewarded through an encouraging comment before moving on to the next learning objective” (1) is especially apparent in the use of “the computer games that are so highly addictive to teenagers,” (1) as their “learning behavior is being progressively rewarded as each level of the game is mastered” (1).  Shield concluded that “the student's mastering of basic technological terms, descriptions of components, and understanding of theory behind technical processes can be achieved through structured programs delivered through CD-ROMs or similar media.  

Shield summarizes much of what current Behaviorists focus on, stating that it is sometimes necessary to memorize bits of information before higher- level, problem-based learning can take place.  He also brings up the interesting point that much of today’s curriculum focuses on these memorized bits of information, and we can clearly conclude that this is a strong reason why so many Behaviorist practices are still relevant in today’s educational tactics.  

Constructivism

Constructivism, on the other hand, is led by the ideas of Jean Piaget and his theories of the four childhood stages of development.  The theories of Constructivism are founded on the belief that “the child, at first directly assimilating the external environment to his own activity, later, in order to extend this assimilation, forms an increasing number of schemata which are both more mobile and better able to inter-coordinate” (Piaget, 1955).  Led by Piaget’s theory, Constructivists that currently practice education believe more in learning by doing.  If a child is able to experiment for himself, the learning will be more profound.  Constructivists then focus on a different aspect of education than Behaviorists, as Behaviorists focus more on how students respond to positive and negative reinforcement provided through an educator’s planned system of data presentation rather than on letting students be presented with stimuli and seeing how students learn on their own. 

One of the tenets of this philosophy is that learners construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality or others with different perspectives.

Constructivist learning environments require students to utilize their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning. Under this framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge.

Constructivist educators must make sure that prior learning experience are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught.

Jonassen (1997) suggests “well-structured” learning environments are useful for more novice learners and that “ill-structured” environments are useful only for more advanced learners.

Educators utilizing technology when teaching with a constructivist perspective should choose technologies that reinforce prior learning perhaps in a problem-solving environment.

Current Trends of Constructivism in Educational Technology

There is a huge push toward more of a Constructivist approach, however, when implementing instructional technologies.  There are many supporters of this, and they provide a convincing argument.  “One way forward is to switch our attention from the design of software packages (which act solely as storehouses of information) to an interactive problem-based environment in which the student assumes the key.  With this profile in place, the learning task can be tailored to the student’s capabilities rather than the student having to fit in with the software designer’s generalized understanding of how learning should take place.  The creation of these rich learning environments will also have to ensure that texts, reference sources, multimedia and communication facilities are fully integrated” (Shield, 2000).  

Learning, if taking place in authentic and real-world environments, and with relevance to the learner, is a “primary catalyst of knowledge construction” (Camp, 1999).  We can clearly see the relevance that Constructivist ideals have in today’s educational practices, as real-world Constructivist learning situations are more motivating to students through practical application of knowledge.  There is clearly a need for this learning as well as rote memorization, as much of what students will do as adults relies heavily on practical applications.     

Cognitivism

One of the difficulties of the educator is to effectively teach all students that walk through our classroom doors regardless of previous experiences and prior knowledge. Cognitivism is a learning theory which tries to explain why learners approach learning experiences in different manners but are still able to flourish (Oxendine, Robinson, & Willson, 2004).

Cognitivism works under the assumption that students learn best when they are actively engaged and involved in the learning experience. When students are engaged they are able to gain a deeper understanding of content and use their knowledge to problem-solve and synthesize. With the use of cognitive tools students are able to interact with information as they shift the learning from a computer to learning with a computer (Robertson, Elliot, & Washington, 2007). This difference is crucial as students are now learning to use a computer to enhance their learning to think about information rather than just reproducing and recalling information. Computers are aiding the learning process, not substituting as teachers.

When discussing ways of increasing student engagement and experiences into the learning process there are various technological tools that can be utilized. Using graphic organizers and concept maps offer students the concrete experience needed for cognitive learning to take place. Advance organizers can incorporate pictures, text, sound bites, and even video clips to provide students with a framework to begin and enhance their learning. As advance organizers activate prior knowledge they also develop mental models which allow for students to begin reflecting upon the subject matter which then leads to an abstract understanding (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007).

Additional tools which lend themselves to cognitivism are summarizing and note taking skills. When teaching summarizing, teachers can use Microsoft Word to type a portion of text into the program. Together, the teacher and students can work together to summarize the text (this is the concrete stage of learning). Next, the teacher can auto summarize the text to see if the students summarized the text in a similar style to the computer (students are now critically reflecting upon their own work). After that the students are then ready for more abstract practice in which they will summarize a paragraph on their own. Leading the students through the summarizing process and moving from concrete to abstract will provide the students a framework in which to draw from for future lessons and activities.

Cognitivism can be used effectively in the classroom when students are engaged in realistic experiences, discussing content, and experimenting with newly formed concepts and experiences (Oxendine, Robinson, & Willson, 2004). Students will remember content much longer when they have had real experiences and hands-on activities to draw from.

References:

• Shield, G. (2000). A critical appraisal of learning technology using information and communication technologies. Journal of Technology Studies.
• Skinner, B. F. (1958). Teaching machines. Science, 128 (3330), (pp. 969-977).
• Sutton, M. J. (2003). Problem representation, understanding, and learning transfer implications for technology education. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 40 (4).
• Oxendine, C., Robinson, J., & Willson, G. (2004). Experiential learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved <2009>.
• Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
• Robertson, B., Elliot, L., & Robinson, D. (2007). Cognitive tools. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved <2009>.